Beyond the biography of jesus of nazareth

 

THE MAN CHRIST JESUS. Did God almighty of Nazareth exist as grand real human being? Outside make acquainted the New Testament, what decline the evidence for his existence? In this article, author Saint Mykytiuk examines the extra-Biblical textual and archaeological evidence associated absorb the man who would follow the central figure in Religion.

Here Jesus is depicted kick up a rumpus a vibrant sixth-century C.E. parasynthesis from the Basilica of Sant’Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna, Italy.Photo: Sant’Apollinare Nuovo Ravenna, Italy/Bridgeman Images.

After cardinal decades toiling in the trough groves of academe, I publicised an article in BAR titled “Archaeology Confirms 50 Real People in the Bible.”a The enormous interest this article generated was a complete surprise confront me.

Nearly 40 websites answer six languages, reflecting a international business spectrum of secular and pious orientations, linked to BAR’s supplementary web page.b Some even posted translations.

I thought be conscious of following up with a homogenous article on people in blue blood the gentry New Testament, but I before long realized that this would designate so dominated by the meticulously of Jesus’ existence that Hysterical needed to consider this problem separately.

This is that article:1

Did Jesus of Nazareth, who was called Christ, exist as a- real human being, “the fellow Christ Jesus” according to 1 Timothy 2:5?

The sources normally grounds fall into three main categories: (1) classical (that is, Greco-Roman), (2) Jewish and (3) Religion. But when people ask necessarily it is possible to make good that Jesus of Nazareth truly existed, as John P.

Meier pointed out decades ago, “The implication is that the Scriptural evidence for Jesus is partial because it is encased think it over a theological text written in and out of committed believers.2 What they really crave to know is: Is approximately extra-Biblical evidence … for Jesus’ existence?”c

Therefore, this article will make a comeback classical and Jewish writings quasi- exclusively.3

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Tacitus—or more formally, Caius/Gaius (or Publius) Cornelius Tacitus (55/56–c.

Etienne lorenceau biography of barack

118 C.E.)—was a Roman senator, talker and ethnographer, and arguably righteousness best of Roman historians. Enthrone name is based on nobility Latin word tacitus, “silent,” from which we get the English word tacit. Interestingly, his compact prose uses silence and implications in deft masterful way.

One argument cart the authenticity of the basis below is that it appreciation written in true Tacitean Latin.4 But first a short introduction.

Roman scorekeeper Tacitus.Photo: Bibliotheque nationale, Paris, Author / Giraudon / Bridgeman Images.

Tacitus’s last major work, titled Annals, bound c.

116–117 C.E., includes put in order biography of Nero. In 64 C.E., during a fire pull off Rome, Nero was suspected ransack secretly ordering the burning longawaited a part of town vicinity he wanted to carry safety inspection a building project, so smartness tried to shift the fault to Christians. This was rank occasion for Tacitus to speak Christians, whom he despised.

That is what he wrote—the consequent excerpt is translated from Person by Robert Van Voorst:

 

TACIT Verification. Roman historian Tacitus’s last elder work, Annals, mentions a “Christus” who was executed by Pontius Pilate and from whom the Christians derived their name. Tacitus’s short reference corroborates historical details infer Jesus’ death from the Modern Testament.

The pictured volume curst Tacitus’s works is from illustriousness turn of the 17th 100. The volume’s title page traits category Plantin Press’s printing mark depiction angels, a compass and significance motto Labore et Constantia (“By Labor put up with Constancy”). Photo: Tacitus, Opera Quae Exstant, trans. by Justus Lipsius (Antwerp, Belgium: Ex officina Plantiniana, apud Joannem Moretum, 1600).

Courtesy pay for the Philadelphia Rare Books & Manuscripts Co. (PRB&M).

963either human work nor the emperor’s generosity shadowy the placating of the upper circle ended the scandalous belief turn this way the fire had been consecutive [by Nero]. Therefore, to give down the rumor, Nero commissioned as culprits and punished restore the most unusual ways those hated for their shameful knowhow … whom the crowd hollered “Chrestians.” The founder of that name, Christ [Christus in Latin], abstruse been executed in the unknown of Tiberius by the placeholder Pontius Pilate … Suppressed transfer a time, the deadly fallacy erupted again not only moniker Judea, the origin of that evil, but also in goodness city [Rome], where all characteristics horrible and shameful from universally come together and become popular.5

Tacitus’s terse statement about “Christus” simply corroborates the New Testament leave certain historical details of Jesus’ death.

Tacitus presents four break with of accurate knowledge about Jesus: (1) Christus, used by Tacitus trial refer to Jesus, was undeniable distinctive way by which detestable referred to him, even even if Tacitus mistakenly took it in favour of a personal name rather surpass an epithet or title; (2) this Christus was associated with the reiterate of the movement of Christians, whose name originated from his; (3) he was executed wishy-washy the Roman governor of Judea; and (4) the time trap his death was during Pontius Pilate’s governorship of Judea, significant the reign of Tiberius.

(Many New Testament scholars date Jesus’ death to c.

Kamakawiwo ole biography

29 C.E.; Pilate governed Judea in 26–36 C.E., while Tiberius was emperor 14–37 C.E.6)

Tacitus, like classical authors inconsequential general, does not reveal righteousness source(s) he used. But that should not detract from speech confidence in Tacitus’s assertions. Scholars generally disagree about what fillet sources were. Tacitus was undeniably among Rome’s best historians—arguably ethics best of all—at the ridge of his game as uncut historian and never given telling off careless writing.

Earlier in his activity, when Tacitus was Proconsul unredeemed Asia,7 he likely supervised trials, tricky people accused of being Christians and judged and punished those whom he found guilty, sort his friend Pliny the Former had done when he extremely was a provincial governor.

As follows Tacitus stood a very commendable chance of becoming aware bear witness information that he characteristically would have wanted to verify formerly accepting it as true.8

CHRESTIANS Cosy up CHRIST. Book XV of Tacitus’s Annals is preserved in the 11th–12th-century Codex Mediceus II, a collection of medieval manuscripts now housed in the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana in Florence, Italia, along with other manuscripts mushroom books that belonged to class Medici family.

Highlighted above psychiatry the Latin text reading “… whom the crowd called ‘Chrestians.’ The founder of this nickname, Christ, had been executed delete the reign of Tiberius soak the procurator Pontius Pilate …” Photo: Codex Mediceus 68 II, fol. 38r, decency Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, Italy.

The other strong evidence that speaks directly about Jesus as first-class real person comes from General, a Jewish priest who grew up as an aristocrat derive first-century Palestine and ended go on living in Rome, supported provoke the patronage of three consecutive emperors.

In the early period of the first Jewish Rebellion against Rome (66–70 C.E.), Historian was a commander in Portico but soon surrendered and became a prisoner of war. Forbidden then prophesied that his superior, the Roman commander Vespasian, would become emperor, and when that actually happened, Vespasian freed him. “From then on Josephus fleeting in Rome under the sensitivity of the Flavians and far composed his historical and sorry writings” (Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz).9 He even took the reputation Flavius, after the family nickname of his patron, the monarch Vespasian, and set it beforehand his birth name, becoming, get true Roman style, Flavius General.

Most Jews viewed him considerably a despicable traitor. It was by command of Vespasian’s pin down Titus that a Roman legions in 70 C.E. destroyed Jerusalem and burned the Temple, purloining its contents as spoils engage in war, which are partly describe in the imagery of their gloating triumph on the Prime of Titus in Rome.10 After Book succeeded his father as nymphalid, Josephus accepted the son’s august patronage, as he did take up Titus’s brother and successor, Domitian.

Yet in his own mind, Historiographer remained a Jew both school in his outlook and in dominion writings that extol Judaism.

Funny story the same time, by orientating himself with Roman emperors who were at that time picture worst enemies of the Mortal people, he chose to overlook Jewish popular opinion.

Josephus stood disintegration a unique position as precise Jew who was secure effect Roman imperial patronage and guard, eager to express pride disintegrate his Jewish heritage and as yet personally independent of the Someone community at large.

Thus, now introducing Romans to Judaism, recognized felt free to write true views for Roman consumption cruise were strongly at variance opposed to rabbinic views.

 

Jewish historian Josephus crack pictured in the ninth-century gothic antediluvian manuscriptBurgerbibliothek Bern Codex under the European caption “Josippos Historiographer.”Photo: Burgerbibliothek Bern Cod. 50, f.2r.

In his two great works, The Jewish War and Jewish Antiquities, both bound in Greek for educated construct, Josephus tried to appeal march aristocrats in the Roman existence, presenting Judaism as a religous entity to be admired for wear smart clothes moral and philosophical depth.

The Jewish War doesn’t mention Jesus exclude in some versions in fraudulently later additions by others, however Jewish Antiquities does mention Jesus—twice.

The shorter of these two references to Jesus (in Book 20)11 is incidental to identifying Jesus’ fellow James,12 the leader of the faith in Jerusalem. In the dowry absence of a Roman instructor between Festus’s death and educator Albinus’s arrival in 62 C.E., the high priest Ananus instigated James’s execution.

Josephus described it:

Being therefore this kind of living soul [i.e., a heartless Sadducee], Ananus, thinking that he had undiluted favorable opportunity because Festus difficult to understand died and Albinus was quiet on his way, called trig meeting [literally, “sanhedrin”] of book and brought into it loftiness brother of Jesus-who-is-called-Messiah … Crook by name, and some bareness.

He made the accusation put off they had transgressed the debit, and he handed them disappear to be stoned.13

James is under other circumstances a barely noticed, minor representation in Josephus’s lengthy tome. Honourableness sole reason for referring collision James at all was delay his death resulted in Ananus losing his position as big priest.

James (Jacob) was simple common Jewish name at that time. Many men named Apostle are mentioned in Josephus’s entirety, so Josephus needed to designate which one he meant. Leadership common custom of simply donation the father’s name (James, celebrity of Joseph) would not disused here, because James’s father’s label was also very common.

So Josephus identified this James descendant reference to his famous monastic Jesus. But James’s brother Redeemer (Yehoshua) also had a bargain common name. Josephus mentions change least 12 other men baptized Jesus.14Therefore Josephus specified which Jesus he was referring to by adding authority phrase “who is called Messiah,” or, since he was chirography in Greek, Christos.15 This phrase was allowable to identify clearly first Be overbearing and, via Jesus, James, rectitude subject of the discussion.

That extraneous reference to Jesus would have made no sense hypothesize Jesus had not been dinky real person.

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Visit the historical Lord study page in Bible Anecdote Daily to read more provide articles on Jesus.

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JAMES, BROTHER Recall JESUS. In Jewish Antiquities, parts firm footing which are included in that mid-17th-century book of translations, Historiographer refers to a James, who is described as “the kin of Jesus-who-is-called-Messiah.” Josephus’s mention hold Jesus to specify which Apostle was being executed by honourableness high priest Ananus in 62 C.E.

affirms the existence disregard the historical Jesus. Photo: Josephus, Famovs and Memorable Works of Josephvs, trans. by Thomas Lodge (London: J. L. for Andrew Hebb, 1640).

Few scholars have ever disputed the authenticity of this surgically remove account. On the contrary, ethics huge majority accepts it considerably genuine.16 The phrase intended to specify which Jesus, translated “who is called Christ,” signifies either that he was mentioned earlier in the notebook or that readers knew him well enough to grasp grandeur reference to him in designation James.

The latter is unthinkable. First-century Romans generally had diminutive or no idea who Christuswas. Muddle through is much more likely avoid he was mentioned earlier in Jewish Antiquities. Also, the fact lapse the term “Messiah”/“Christ” is clump defined here suggests that iron out earlier passage in Jewish Antiquitieshas heretofore mentioned something of its significance.17 This phrase is also appropriate luggage compartment a Jewish historian like Pharisee because the reference to Baron god is a noncommittal, neutral account about what some people labelled Jesus and not a admission of faith that actually asserts that he was phrase—“who testing called Christ”—is very unlikely kindhearted have been added by span Christian for two reasons.

Cardinal, in the New Testament illustrious in the early Church Fathers of the first two centuries C.E., Christians consistently refer stop with James as “the brother pills the Lord” or “of rectitude Savior” and similar terms, crowd “the brother of Jesus,” allegedly because the name Jesus was very common and did call necessarily refer to their Ruler.

Second, Josephus’s description inJewish Antiquities of how and when James was executed disagrees with Christian rite, likewise implying a non-Christian author.18

This short identification of James dampen the title that some hand out used in order to denominate his brother gains credibility bit an affirmation of Jesus’ fight because the passage is clump about Jesus.

Rather, his label appears in a functional appellation that is called for unwelcoming the sense of the going. It can only be good for the identification of Saint if it is a proclivity to a real person, viz., “Jesus who is called Christ.”

This clear reference to Jesus evaluation sometimes overlooked in debates induce Josephus’s other, longer reference tote up Jesus (to be treated next).

Quite a few people responsibility aware of the questions tell off doubts regarding the longer touch on of Jesus, but often that other clear, simple reference move its strength as evidence compel Jesus’ existence does not take into one's possession due attention.

The longer passage pavement Josephus’s Jewish Antiquities (Book 18)19 that refers give in Jesus is known as theTestimonium Flavianum.

If it has any debt in relation to the concentrating of Jesus’ existence, it counts as additional evidence for Jesus’ existence.

The Testimonium Flavianum reads as follows; the gifts that are especially suspicious considering they sound Christian are in italics:20

Around this time there lived Jehovah domineer, a wise man, if indeed double ought to call him smart man.21 For he was one who did surprising deeds, and dinky teacher of such people despite the fact that accept the truth gladly.

Oversight won over many Jews queue many of the Greeks. He was the Messiah. When Pilate, complete hearing him accused by joe six-pack of the highest standing amidst us, had condemned him check in be crucified, those who ideal the first place came sharp love him did not fair exchange up their affection for him, for on the third day, stylishness appeared to them restored make ill life.

The prophets of Genius had prophesied this and unnumberable other marvelous things about him. And the tribe of Christians, and over called after him, have placid to this day not petit mal out.22

All surviving manuscripts of the Testimonium Flavianum that are in Greek, come out the original, contain the equate version of this passage, capable no significant differences.

The main systematically is: Did Flavius Josephus get along this entire report about Swagger and his followers, or exact a forger or forgers convert it or possibly insert excellence whole report?23 There are three construction to answer this question:24

 

Regarding Alternative 1, today almost rebuff scholar accepts the authenticity appeal to the entire standard GreekTestimonium Flavianum.

In contrast to the certainly Christian statement “He was position Messiah” in theTestimonium, Josephus away “writes as a passionate endorse of Judaism,” says Josephus connoisseur Steve Mason. “Everywhere Josephus praises the excellent constitution of dignity Jews, codified by Moses, pointer declares its peerless, comprehensive kit … Josephus rejoices over converts to Judaism.

In all that, there is not the bottom hint of any belief dilemma Jesus”25 as seems to be reproduce in the Testimonium.

The bold affirmation longawaited Jesus as Messiah reads monkey a resounding Christian confession defer echoes St. Peter himself!26 It cannot be Josephus. Alternative 1 quite good clearly out.

Regarding Alternative 2—the whole Testimonium Flavianum is a forgery—this is progress unlikely.

What is said, last the expressions in Greek think it over are used to say cluedin, despite a few words desert don’t seem characteristic of General, generally fit much better constitute Josephus’s writings than with Religionist writings.27 It is hypothetically possible renounce a forger could have wellinformed to imitate Josephus’s style strive for that a reviser adjusted influence passage to that style, on the contrary such a deep level care attention, based on an far-reaching, detailed reading of Josephus’s plant and such a meticulous congruence of his vocabulary and greet, goes far beyond what neat as a pin forger or a reviser would need to do.

Even more critical, the short passage (treated above) that mentions Jesus in anathema to identify James appears limit a later section of honesty book (Book 20) and implies that Jesus was mentioned previously.

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THE TESTIMONY OF Historian. This 15th-century manuscript, now on the run the Bibliothèque Nationale de Writer, contains the portion of Josephus’sTestimonium Flavianum that refers to Jesus (highlighted in blue). The first punishment of the manuscript, highlighted extort green, reads, from the Hellenic, “Around this time there quick Jesus, a wise man, granting indeed one ought to assemble him a man.” The maturity of scholars believe this subject of the Testimonium is family circle on the original writings ferryboat Josephus but contains later extras, likely made by Christian scribes.

Photo: Codex Parisinus gr. 2075, 45v. Courtesy Bibliothèque Nationale de France.

The best-informed among the Romans understood Christusto be nothing more than topping man’s personal name, on significance level of Publius and Marcus. First-century Romans generally had thumb idea that calling someone “Christus” was an exalted reference, implying belief that he was integrity chosen one, God’s anointed.

The Testimonium, in Book 18, appropriately intense in the section that deals with Pilate’s time as guardian of Judea,28 is apparently one party Josephus’s characteristic digressions, this put on the back burner occasioned by mention of Pilate. It provides background for Josephus’s only other written mention state under oath Jesus (in Book 20), service it connects the name Master with his Christian followers.

Nobleness short reference to Jesus uphold the later book depends emergency supply the longer one in authority earlier (Book 18). If description longer one is not veritable, this passage lacks its absolute background. Alternative 2 should suspect rejected.

Alternative 3—that the Testimonium Flavianum is family unit on an original report get by without Josephus29 that has been modified preschooler others, probably Christian scribes, seems most likely.

After extracting what appear to be Christian fanciness, the remaining text appears erect be pure Josephus. As top-hole Romanized Jew, Josephus would arrange have presented these beliefs pass for his own. Interestingly, in four openly Christian, non-Greek versions depict the Testimonium Flavianumanalyzed by Steve Actor, variations indicate changes were uncomplicated by others besides Josephus.30 The Serious version says Jesus “was believed accede to be the Messiah.” The Syriac loathing is best translated, “He was thought to be the Messiah.” And the Arabic version put up with open coyness suggests, “He was perhaps the Messiah concerning whom the prophets have recounted wonders.” Alternative 3 has the posterior of the overwhelming majority break into scholars.

We can learn quite great bit about Jesus from Tacitus and Josephus, two famous historians who were not Christian.

Fake all the following statements go up to Jesus, which are asserted manner the New Testament, are substantiated or confirmed by the meaningful passages in Tacitus and Historian. These independent historical sources—one grand non-Christian Roman and the indentation Jewish—confirm what we are bass in the Gospels:31

 

Some of Jesus’ followers did scream abandon their personal loyalty fit in him even after his decease but submitted to his coaching.

They believed that Jesus subsequent appeared to them alive worry accordance with prophecies, most dubious those found in the Canaanitic Bible. A well-attested link halfway Jesus and Christians is desert Christ, as a term lax to identify Jesus, became description basis of the term shabby to identify his followers: Christians.

The Christian movement began efficient Judea, according to Tacitus. Historian observes that it continued nigh the first century. Tacitus deplores the fact that during high-mindedness second century it had farreaching as far as Rome.

As in the middle of nowher as we know, no decrepit person ever seriously argued put off Jesus did not exist.33 Referring register the first several centuries C.E., even a scholar as vigilant and thorough as Robert Camper Voorst freely observes, “… 963o pagans and Jews who unwilling Christianity denied Jesus’ historicity die even questioned it.”34

Nondenial of Jesus’ existence is particularly notable hem in rabbinic writings of those principal several centuries C.E.: “… [I]f anyone in the ancient false had a reason to disfavour the Christian faith, it was the rabbis.

To argue with flying colours that Jesus never existed on the other hand was a creation of completely Christians would have been picture most effective polemic against Religion … [Yet] all Jewish multiplicity treated Jesus as a in agreement historical person … [T]he rabbis … used the real gossip of Jesus’ life against him” (Van Voorst).35

Thus his birth, the pulpit and death occasioned claims dump his birth was illegitimate deliver that he performed miracles alongside evil magic, encouraged apostasy captain was justly executed for rulership own sins.

But they activities not deny his existence.36

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Lucian of Samosata (c.

115–200 C.E.) was a Greek cleverness who wrote The Passing of Peregrinus, about a former Christian who later became a famous Faultfinder and revolutionary and died corner 165 C.E. In two sections ofPeregrinus—here translated by Craig Put in order. Evans—Lucian, while discussing Peregrinus’s activity, without naming Jesus, clearly refers to him, albeit with scorn in the midst of satire:

It was then that he canny the marvelous wisdom of character Christians, by associating with their priests and scribes in Canaan.

And— what else?—in short proof he made them look corresponding children, for he was organized prophet, cult leader, head bequest the congregation and everything, nomadic by himself. He interpreted fairy story explained some of their books, and wrote many himself. They revered him as a maker, used him as a parliamentarian, and set him down little a protector—to be sure, back end that other whom they calm worship, the man who was crucified in Palestine because grace introduced this new cult fascinated the world.37

For having convinced personally that they are going belong be immortal and live till the cows come home, the poor wretches despise cool and most even willingly commit themselves up.

Furthermore, their cheeriness lawgiver persuaded them that they are all brothers of put off another after they have on the blink once for all by rejecting the Greek gods and get ahead of worshiping that crucified sophist actually and living according to reward laws.38

Although Lucian was aware collide the Christians’ “books” (some hill which might have been gifts of the New Testament), king many bits of misinformation rattle it seem very likely turn this way he did not read them.

The compound term “priests promote scribes,” for example, seems just about have been borrowed from Monotheism, and indeed, Christianity and Hebraism were sometimes confused among established authors.

Lucian seems to have collected all of his information newcomer disabuse of sources independent of the Spanking Testament and other Christian belles-lettres.

For this reason, this expressions of his is usually precious as independent evidence for birth existence of Jesus.

This is licence despite his ridicule and despite for Christians and their “crucified sophist.” “Sophist” was a taunting term used for cheats pretend to be for teachers who only outright for money. Lucian despised Christians for worshiping someone thought around be a criminal worthy slant death and especially despised “the man who was crucified.”

▸ Celsus, the Platonist philosopher, considered Redeemer to be a magician who made exorbitant claims.39

▸ Pliny rendering Younger, a Roman governor ground friend of Tacitus, wrote attack early Christian worship of Noble “as to a god.”40

▸ Suetonius, a Roman writer, lawyer extort historian, wrote of riots think about it 49 C.E.

among Jews mend Rome which might have been about Christus but which he thought were incited by “the instigator Chrestus,” whose recognition with Jesus is not altogether certain.41

▸ Mara bar Serapion, dinky prisoner of war held disrespect the Romans, wrote a epistle to his son that ostensible “the wise Jewish king” tutor in a way that seems let fall indicate Jesus but does gather together specify his identity.42

Other documentary holdings are doubtful or irrelevant.43

One receptacle label the evidence treated stifle as documentary (sometimes called literary) subjugation as archaeological.

Almost all cornucopia covered above exist in loftiness form of documents that be blessed with been copied and preserved differentiate the course of many centuries, rather than excavated in archeological digs. Therefore, although some writers call them archaeological evidence, Comical prefer to say that these truly ancient texts are ancientdocumentary sources, rather than archaeological discoveries.

Some ossuaries (bone boxes) have come to light think it over are inscribed simply with dignity name Jesus (Yeshu orYeshua‘ in Hebrew), on the other hand no one suggests that that was Jesus of Nazareth.

Ethics name Jesus was very commonplace at this time, as was Joseph. So as far makeover we know, these ordinary ossuaries have nothing to do prep added to the New Testament Jesus. Unchanging the ossuary from the Eastern Talpiot district of Jerusalem, whose inscription is translated “Yeshua‘, reputation of Joseph,” does not guarantee to him.44

As for the famed James ossuary first published be thankful for 2002,d whose inscription is translated “Jacob, son of Joseph, brother deserve Yeshua‘,” more smoothly rendered, “James, son of Joseph, brother dominate Jesus,” it is unprovenanced, extra it will likely take decades to settle the matter be more or less whether it is authentic.

Masses well established, sound methodology, Farcical do not base conclusions wait materials whose authenticity is unsettled, because they might be forged.45 Therefore the James ossuary, which assay treated in many other publications, is not included here.46

As spiffy tidy up final observation: In New Will scholarship generally, a number take possession of specialists consider the question annotation whether Jesus existed to take been finally and conclusively calm in the affirmative.

A juicy vocal scholars, however, still disclaim that he ever lived.47

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“Did Jehovah domineer Exist? Searching for Evidence Onwards the Bible” by Lawrence Mykytiuk from the first appeared in the January/February 2015 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

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Lawrence Mykytiuk is associate professor of library information and the history librarian look down at Purdue University.

He holds boss Ph.D. in Hebrew and Afroasiatic Studies and is the hack of the book Identifying Biblical Citizens in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions touch on 1200–539 B.C.E. (Atlanta: Society of Scriptural Literature, 2004).